pgsql: Add support for asynchronous execution.

Add support for asynchronous execution.

This implements asynchronous execution, which runs multiple parts of a
non-parallel-aware Append concurrently rather than serially to improve
performance when possible. Currently, the only node type that can be
run concurrently is a ForeignScan that is an immediate child of such an
Append. In the case where such ForeignScans access data on different
remote servers, this would run those ForeignScans concurrently, and
overlap the remote operations to be performed simultaneously, so it'll
improve the performance especially when the operations involve
time-consuming ones such as remote join and remote aggregation.

We may extend this to other node types such as joins or aggregates over
ForeignScans in the future.

This also adds the support for postgres_fdw, which is enabled by the
table-level/server-level option "async_capable". The default is false.

Robert Haas, Kyotaro Horiguchi, Thomas Munro, and myself. This commit
is mostly based on the patch proposed by Robert Haas, but also uses
stuff from the patch proposed by Kyotaro Horiguchi and from the patch
proposed by Thomas Munro. Reviewed by Kyotaro Horiguchi, Konstantin
Knizhnik, Andrey Lepikhov, Movead Li, Thomas Munro, Justin Pryzby, and
others.

Discussion: https://postgr.es/m/CA%2BTgmoaXQEt4tZ03FtQhnzeDEMzBck%2BLrni0UWHVVgOTnA6C1w%40mail.gmail.com
Discussion: https://postgr.es/m/CA%2BhUKGLBRyu0rHrDCMC4%3DRn3252gogyp1SjOgG8SEKKZv%3DFwfQ%40mail.gmail.com
Discussion: https://postgr.es/m/20200228.170650.667613673625155850.horikyota.ntt%40gmail.com

Branch
------
master

Details
-------
https://git.postgresql.org/pg/commitdiff/27e1f14563cf982f1f4d71e21ef247866662a052

Modified Files
--------------
contrib/postgres_fdw/connection.c | 26 +-
contrib/postgres_fdw/expected/postgres_fdw.out | 509 ++++++++++++++++++++++++-
contrib/postgres_fdw/option.c | 6 +-
contrib/postgres_fdw/postgres_fdw.c | 374 ++++++++++++++++--
contrib/postgres_fdw/postgres_fdw.h | 17 +-
contrib/postgres_fdw/sql/postgres_fdw.sql | 195 ++++++++++
doc/src/sgml/config.sgml | 14 +
doc/src/sgml/fdwhandler.sgml | 90 +++++
doc/src/sgml/monitoring.sgml | 5 +
doc/src/sgml/postgres-fdw.sgml | 28 ++
src/backend/commands/explain.c | 3 +
src/backend/executor/Makefile | 1 +
src/backend/executor/README | 40 ++
src/backend/executor/execAmi.c | 4 +
src/backend/executor/execAsync.c | 124 ++++++
src/backend/executor/nodeAppend.c | 461 +++++++++++++++++++++-
src/backend/executor/nodeForeignscan.c | 48 +++
src/backend/nodes/copyfuncs.c | 2 +
src/backend/nodes/outfuncs.c | 2 +
src/backend/nodes/readfuncs.c | 2 +
src/backend/optimizer/path/costsize.c | 1 +
src/backend/optimizer/plan/createplan.c | 41 ++
src/backend/postmaster/pgstat.c | 3 +
src/backend/storage/ipc/latch.c | 9 +
src/backend/utils/misc/guc.c | 10 +
src/backend/utils/misc/postgresql.conf.sample | 1 +
src/include/executor/execAsync.h | 25 ++
src/include/executor/nodeAppend.h | 2 +
src/include/executor/nodeForeignscan.h | 4 +
src/include/foreign/fdwapi.h | 14 +
src/include/nodes/execnodes.h | 37 +-
src/include/nodes/plannodes.h | 6 +
src/include/optimizer/cost.h | 1 +
src/include/pgstat.h | 3 +-
src/include/storage/latch.h | 1 +
src/test/regress/expected/explain.out | 7 +
src/test/regress/expected/incremental_sort.out | 2 +
src/test/regress/expected/insert_conflict.out | 4 +-
src/test/regress/expected/sysviews.out | 3 +-
39 files changed, 2068 insertions(+), 57 deletions(-)